Outline and Summary

The Darfur Crisis as a Case of Genocide

The Darfur crisis is an armed conflict in the region of western Sudan (Africa). It began in July 2003 and is still occurring nowadays. The crisis is principally between the Janjaweed, a militia group, and the Sudanese population. The Sudanese government gave weapons and support and contributed in attacks led by the Janjaweed, targeting ethnic groups in Darfur. Civilians are raped, deported and killed because of who they are. The real problem is that the international community spent a lot of time deciding whether the crisis should be called a genocide or not. During that time, nobody was helping in Darfur and thousands of people were dying.

I will examine and analyse the characteristics of a genocide based on the UN Genocide Convention, the Public International Law and scholarly articles in order to demonstrate that the Darfur crisis is indeed a genocide and I will also make suggestions as to what can be done in order to help the population in Darfur.

I. Characteristics of a genocide

A. The Genocide Convention: Criteria
1. Killings
2. Wounds
3. Creation of bad conditions of life
4. Sterilization
5. Trading of children

B. The Public International Law
1. International humanitarian law
2. Human rights law

C. Definitions provided by scholars
1. Ethnic cleansing
2. Humanitarian crisis

II. Darfur crisis a genocide?

A. Positions of non-governmental organisations
1. Amnesty International: Humanitarian Crisis
2. Human Rights Watch: Ethnic Cleansing

B. Positions of a governmental organisation and two governments
1. The United Nations: Humanitarian Crisis
2. Government of Canada: Massive Violations of Human Rights
3. Government of the United States: Genocide

III. Ways to help out

A. Participation of a non-governmental organisation and two governments
1. International Committee of the Red Cross
2. Government of Canada
3. Government of the United-States (helped by the United Nations)

B. Citizenship Participation
1. Sending letters
2. Organizing local groups
3. Sending money

Literature Review

Caroline Chénier
Professor Saint-Yves
English 22369
March 22, 2007

The Crisis Occurring in Darfur Described as a Genocide

The worldwide known slogan “Never Again”, from the Rwanda Genocide, does not prevent human being from armed conflicts, or make international community help rapidly. Nothing seems to have been learned from past genocides (Holocaust, Yugoslavia and Rwanda) and, nowadays, hours are spent deciding what name should the crisis be given. According to this, I will examine and analyse the characteristics of a genocide based on scholarly articles, the UN Genocide Convention and the Public International Law in order to demonstrate that the Darfur crisis is indeed a genocide and I will also make suggestions as what can be done to help.


Gabriel Meyer, journalist and author of “War and Faith in Sudan”, approached, in his article entitled “Stories from Sudan: Understanding the Region”, the conflict differently by linking it with the Nuba Mountains, an indigenous tribe of northern Sudan living in central mountains, who had been the target of a genocide a few years earlier (638-42). Like Scott Strauss, “Darfur and the Genocide Debate,” and Henri Boulad “Triple Genocide in Sudan”, Gabriel Meyer (640) described the reasons of the crisis in Darfur according to the Sudaneses ethnicity, that is Arab versus African. However, Strauss (125-6) and Boulad (21-2) explained the reasons of the crisis in Darfur through three genocides that already took place in Sudan. The first one is the forced deportation of southern populations settled in Khartoum, the second one concerns a religious and ethnic cleansing by Muslims and the third one is about the famine in Juba. With the explanation of these three genocides, the present situation in Sudan is more understandable because we can clearly understand why people are still fighting nowadays, which is related to past events. Briefly, Strauss and Boulad’s articles give a great context and explanations of the crisis occurring in Darfur, Sudan.

Concerning the life conditions in Sudan, there are several articles about the subject. Most of them are describing the situation in general, like the articles “Africa’s Inferno” written by Brian Brivati and “Chad/Sudan: End Government Support to Militias” written by Human Rights Watch. This last article is giving a certain number of statistics of dead, wounded, sick, and displaced people. In his article entitled “Beyond Humanitarian Bandages – Confronting Genocide in Sudan”, Jerry Fowler discussed the main reasons why people are dying in refugees’ camps (2574-5) but it is in the report produced by the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs with UN agencies and partner NGOs that every disease and problem in refugees’ camps are deeply explained. Indeed, the article talked about, more specifically, cholera, avian flu and meningitis and about food and water distribution problems (4-5). The article is also describing the problems NGOs and humanitarian organizations have in Sudan because SLA (a group of militias in Sudan) is terrifying the organizations, refusing them the access to many camps and forcing them to suspend their operations. In a similar article written by Tony Carnes (50-3), the life conditions in Darfur are also explained and analysed but the author puts his interest on the international aid, mostly given by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), on medical assistance. The writer stated that the international aid is not shared honestly and that is why people are dying in refugees camps. By contrasting this article with the one by the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, the UNOCHA article gives a lot more relevant information because it specifies the diseases and gives concrete examples. Nonetheless, at the end of his article, Tony Carnes gave an example of a child living in a refugees’ camp who does not speak anymore because of the trauma she had (50-1). Unfortunately, this subject is not enough elaborated but it gives, nevertheless, a great idea of life conditions in Darfur.

In the same way, a number of scholars such as Scott Strauss, Jerry Fowler, Zachary Elsea and Jerome A. Singh wrote about the crisis in Sudan and most of them are wondering if the crisis can be called a genocide or not, if it answers to the criteria of the Genocide Convention or not. In their pieces of writing, these writers demonstrated that according to some circumstances, such as the proof of willingness to kill and the exact number of death, the crisis in Sudan can only be seen as an “ethnic cleansing” or a “humanitarian crisis” instead of a genocide. Precisely, Scott Straus (123) demonstrated that there are two approaches of the genocide definition. He gave, as an example, the position of Nicholas Kristof, a New York Times columnist who thinks that a genocide is occurring in Darfur. In the same way, Colin Powell, MoveOn.org, the Congressional Black Caucus, African-American civil rights groups and some international human rights organizations are trying to tell the world that what is happening in Darfur is a genocide and that international aid is needed. On the contrary, organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch and even the United Nations are not recognising the crisis as a genocide but more as an “ethnic cleansing” (125). They said that, according to Scott Straus, “Darfur involved the forced removal of an ethnic group, not its deliberate extermination, and that genocide is hard to prove in the midst of a crisis” (125).

Similarly, Zachary Elsea wrote in his article “Facing Genocide,” the definition of a genocide accepted by the United Nations, as did Fowler (218), and it is, “any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such: (a) killing members of the group; (b) causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; (c) deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; (d) imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; (e) forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.” He then concluded that the situation in Darfur encounters this definition. Elsea’s colleague, Jerome A. Singh, related, in his article a very similar definition of the situation in Darfur according to the Genocide Convention (231). Singh thinks that the international community has spent enough time trying to find the good designation of the situation in Darfur and that measures should be taken now. Regarding the labelling of Darfur crisis whether it is a genocide or not, David Luban declared in his article that maybe the word genocide is a false friend and that it should be analysed under legal, political and journalistic terms (304). Then, Luban discussed about the points of view of the Genocide Convention, the Nuremberg Charter, the Criminal Tribunal, the UN Commission and the UN Darfur Report concerning the crisis in Darfur. The writer explained his point of view in a clear way and he wrote a lot of significant information about how the term genocide can be used and the consequences of using that word, such as the imposed international response.

Another way of examining the term and the usage of the word genocide is according to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). In fact, the ICRC does not have the same definition as the Genocide Convention because its international humanitarian law is divided into two categories: international armed conflicts and non-international armed conflicts. There is a distinction between international humanitarian law and human rights law too (2). The crisis occurring in Darfur is a non-international armed conflict and needs to be judged with the international humanitarian law because it involves a single state, armed groups fighting each other and it is not occurring in time of peace. In the ICRC’s article the laws are well explained and it is easy to use them with the crisis in Darfur. Moreover, the international humanitarian law is really useful in order to understand different points of view concerning how to condemned a crisis or a genocide. In addition to the international laws condemning genocide, there are laws concerning children under the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (1-6). These laws are not closely related with those of a genocide but they are also condemning crimes committed under armed conflicts, especially by or against children. In fact, those laws are accusing the presence of children under the age of 18 in states armies during armed conflict. Even if this source contains well-explained articles and because article 8 seems realistic and easily achievable, there are not enough examples on how to apply the law.

Finally, Thomas K. Grose (83) illustrated in his article that the best way to help people in Darfur is by sending letters to Sudan government asking to stop the violence, organizing local groups or sending money to main international organizations such as CARE, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and Doctors Without Borders. Even if Thomas K. Grose states measures that can be taken in a clear way, his article is a little bit too short and could have been more developed by explaining how each organizations help in Darfur.


The researchers have different points of view and do not seem to agree concerning if the crisis in Darfur is a genocide or if it is an ethnic cleansing or a humanitarian crisis. However, even with all the readings and different positions, the crisis in Darfur still looks like a genocide and international communities must react soon.



Works Cited

A. Singh, Jerome. “Genocide: Burden of Proof and Inaction is Costing Lives in Sudan.” The Lancet. 364(9430) (2004): 230-1.

Boulad, Henri. “Triple Genocide in Sudan.” Migration World Magazine. 23(4) (1995): 20.

Brivati, Brian. “Africa's Inferno. (Cover story).” New Statesman. 136.4825 (2007): 30-2.

Carnes, Tony. “Does Darfur Have a Prayer?” Christianity Today. 50.12 (2006): 50-3.

Elsea, Zachary. “Facing Genocide.” Harvard International Review. 26(3) (2004): 11-2.

Fowler, Jerry. “Beyond Humanitarian Bandages - Confronting Genocide in Sudan.” The New England Journal of Medicine. 351(25) (2004): 2574-6.

Fowler, Jerry. “Diplomacy and the G-Word’”. Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law. 35.2 (2003): 213-8.

Grose, Thomas K. “Do Something About Darfur.” U.S. News & World Report 141 (2006): 83.

Human Rights Watch. “Chad/Sudan: End Government Support to Militias”. Human Rights Watch. New York. 2007. 4 Feb. 2007. .

International Committee of the Red Cross. “What is International Humanitarian Law?” Advisory Service on International Humanitarian Law. International Committee of the Red Cross. Feb. 2007. ICRC. .

Luban, David. “Calling Genocide by its Rightful Name: Lemkin's Word, Darfur, and the UN Report.” Chicago Journal of International Law. 7.1 (2006): 303-320.

Meyer, Gabriel. “War and Faith in Sudan” in “Stories from Sudan: Understanding the Region.” Vital Speeches of the Day. 72 (2006): 638-44.

Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. “Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict.” UNHCHR. United Nations. Feb. 2007. UN. 14 Feb. 2007. .

Quayle, Peter. “Unimaginable Evil: The Legislative Limitations of the Genocide Convention.” International Criminal Law Review. 5.3 (2005): 363-71.

Strauss, Scott. “Darfur and the Genocide Debate.” Foreign Affairs. 84(1) (2005): 123-7.

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Darfur.” Sudan Humanitarian Overview. UN OCHA. May 2006. UN. 4 Feb. 2007. .

Title and Thesis Statement

Title:
The Genocide Occurring in Darfur Seen by Main International Actors


Thesis statement:
I will examine and analyse the characteristics of a genocide based on scholarly articles, the UN Genocide Convention and the Public International Law in order to demonstrate that the Darfur crisis is indeed a genocide and I will also make suggestions as what can be done in order to help the population in Darfur.

In-class Exercise: Looking at Arguments

Article:
Elsea, Zachary. “Facing Genocide”. Harvard International Review 26 (2004): 11-2.

Subject and approach:
The author analyses the humanitarian crisis in Sudan.

Thesis statement:
The global community’s sluggish response to the crisis in the Darfur region of Sudan was due to the intricacies of international laws designed to preserve peace and human life.

Argument:
The slow response by the international community is not due to a lack of media exposure or investigation. (Elsea, p. 11)

1. What is the stated premise? Is it completely accurate?
The stated premise is that even with all the media around the Darfur crisis, the response by the international community is still slow. The stated premise is accurate because it answers to the thesis statement.

2. What is the hidden premise?
The hidden premise is that it is still not understandable that the international community is not helping rapidly.

3. Is the statement completely accurate?
Yes and it is proven with the rest of the article.

4. Do the premises inescapably lead to the conclusion?
The premises lead to the conclusion.

Note Taking

Meyer, Gabriel. “Stories from Sudan: UNDERSTANDING THE REGION.” Vital Speeches of the Day. 72 (2006): 638-44.

Aspect of my research:

History of the crisis


Summary:

Speech addressed by Gabriel Meyer, a journalist and author, about Nuba origins, an indigenous group of northern Sudan living in central mountains. During his speech, the author talked about the history of Sudan, all the wars that occurred there and Africa’s longest civil conflict. He also linked together the history of the Nuba Mountains to the crisis in Darfur. Then, he also discussed how people referred to themselves in Sudan, which is Arab versus African. Then, he explained how these identities created conflicts in Sudan.

Quotations:

“People tend to refer to themselves as either Arabs or Africans even though obviously the northern Arabs, who have an identification with the Middle East, with the Arabic languages and with Islam, are also Africans and in many cases black.” (Meyer, 640)

“Modern wars always turn out to be wars against children.” (Meyer, 641)

What I need to learn more about:

I need to learn more about the current event in Darfur.

My opinion:

It is a great article concerning the history and crisis of Darfur but the article focuses more on the Nuba Mountains and not on the Darfur region.

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Straus, Scott. “Darfur and the Genocide Debate.” Foreign Affairs. 84(1) (2005): 123-8.

Aspect of my research:
History and Debate

Summary:
The author talks about the debate occurring nowadays concerning if the Darfur crisis is a genocide or not. Moreover, Straus talks about the fact that there is no international response to the crisis. Then, he discusses the conflict happening in Darfur through several separate conflicts, mostly through 3 of them. The first one is the civil war between the Islamist and two rebel groups based in Darfur. The second one is the civil war between the northern Arab and Christian and animist black southerners. And finally, the third one is the war between those who claim black “African” descent and those who claim “Arab” descent. After that, Straus talks about the word play of “genocide”. He then briefly tells who thinks it is a genocide and who thinks it is not. Finally, he gives some solutions in order to have a better response from the international community.

Quotations:
“The crisis is currently the worst humanitarian disaster on the planet.” (Straus, 123)

“The international community has once more proved slow and ineffective in responding to large-scale, state-supported killing.” (Straus, 123)

“Darfurians are uniformly Muslim, and years on intermarriage have narrowed obvious physical differences between “Arabs” and black “Africans”. (Straus, 124)

“Thus the janjaweed were born. Their name, which translates roughly as “evil men on horseback,” was chosen to inspire fear, and the janjaweed, who include convicted felons, quickly succeeded. Khartoum instructed the militias to “eliminate the rebellion,” as Sudan’s President Omar al-Bashir acknowledged in a December 2003 speech. What followed, however, was a campaign of violence that primarily targeted black African civilians.” (Straus, 124)

“The attackers sometimes murder children. For women, the primary threat is rape; sexual violence has been widespread in this conflict.” (Straus, 124)

“Yet public debate in the United States and Europe has focused less on the violence itself than on what to call it – in particular, whether the term “genocide” applies.” (Straus, 125)

“EU, Canadian, and British officials all avoided the term, as did UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, who was pilloried in the media for limiting his description of Darfur to “massive violations of human rights”.” (Straus, 125)

What I need to learn more about:
I need to learn more about the international community response and the reasons why some organizations are saying it is a genocide, and why some are saying the contrary.

My opinion:
It is a good article: a little bit general but it has interesting information.

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Fowler, Jerry. “Beyond Humanitarian Bandages - Confronting Genocide in Sudan.” The New England Journal of Medicine. 351(25) (2004): 2574-6.

Aspect of my research:
“Life conditions” and “Is it a Genocide?”

Summary:
The author talks about the life conditions in Darfur and mostly about why and from what people are dying in refugee’s camps. He then talks about the label of the crisis and the fact that there is no true response from the international community. In brief, he says that saying the “g-word” does not make the conflict go.

Quotation:
“The main cause of death identified by the WHO was diarrhea, resulting from the shortage of clean water and inadequate hygiene. Respiratory infections and hepatitis E have also taken their toll.” (Fowler, 2575)

What I need to learn more about:
I need to learn more about what the World Health Organization is doing in order to help the Darfurians.

My opinion:
It is an interesting article according to the facts about life conditions and the way of talking about the crisis in Darfur.

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Elsea, Zachary. “Facing Genocide.” Harvard International Review. 26(3) (2004): 11-2.

Aspect of my research:
Theories of a genocide and the debate question

Summary:
The intricacies of international laws designed to preserve peace and human life can become self-defeating when emphasis is shifted from expediently enforcing the spirit of the law to debating its technicalities. This has been the case with the global community’s sluggish response to the crisis in the Darfur region of Sudan. Arab militias called janjaweed have, with the Sudanese government’s support, carried out a campaign against the ethnically black African minority in the predominantly Muslim Darfur region that has killed 30000 outright and left more than one million homeless. The bottleneck in discourse about a solution to the Darfur crisis has been caused by an overemphasis on the simple letter of the law, rather than on appeals to what should be done to solve the situation.

Quotations:

“Humanitarian aid agencies, major newspaper staffs, and concerned diplomats have in the past months warned of coming genocide in Sudan and begged the United Nations to take action to prevent the situation from becoming “another Rwanda.” (Elsea, 11)

“The definition of genocide, as accepted by the United Nations, is any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such: (a) killing members of the group; (b) causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; (c) deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; (d) imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; (e) forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.” (Elsea, 12)

What I need to learn more about:
I need more to learn about the Genocide Convention, the UN position and the US position on the debate of the crisis in Darfur.

My opinion:
The article is too short and too general but gives a definition of a genocide according to the UN.

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A. Singh, Jerome. “Genocide: Burden of Proof and Inaction is Costing Lives in Sudan.” The Lancet. 364(9430) (2004): 230-1.

Aspect of my research:
Life conditions and Theories of a genocide

Summary:
The article is a discussion about the Genocide Convention in order to prove if it is still relevant or not. Then, the life conditions in Darfur are presented through facts from Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International.

Quotation:
“The international community and the UN remain ambivalent about whether the atrocities in the region constitute acts of genocide.” (A. Singh, 230)

What I need to learn more about:
I need to learn more about the Genocide Convention, the point of view of Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International.

My opinion:
Good information from various sources but the article is too short. It is a good overview of the Darfur crisis but maybe the article is too general.

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Fowler, Jerry. "DIPLOMACY AND "THE G-WORD"”. Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law. 35.2 (2003): 213-8.

Aspect of my research:
Theories of a genocide

Summary:
“The author makes the argument that the concept of genocide should not be jettisoned in the pre-justice phase, the response phase. Instead, an approach needs to be adopted different from the one adopted in the past. The author also discusses the way this concept has played into responses of the U.S. government to the ongoing situation in Sudan. As a general matter, there is acceptance today of a more expansive view of prevention, that there really is some moral, if not legal, obligation to do something to stop genocide before it happens. Or, once genocide is in the making or once it does happen, there is an obligation that something needs to be done to stop it, even if this obligation is more honoured in the breach. So, in spite of that fairly unpromising drafting history, this notion of prevention is still very much an issue with which governments have to deal.”

Quotations:
“They’re all ready to fight the last war, but the next war is never quite like the last one.” (Fowler, 213)

“It does not matter what definitions you are working with, if there is not “political will” to respond.” (Fowler, 214)

What I need to learn more about:
I need to learn more about the Sudan Peace Act.

My opinion:
Interesting article and mostly because there is a lot of information in the footnote too such as the definition of a genocide according to the Genocide Convention.

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Boulad, Henri. “Triple Genocide in Sudan.” Migration World Magazine. 23(4) (1995): 20.

Aspect of my research:
History of the crisis

Summary:
“The Muslim government’s control over the non-Muslim south of Sudan has caused great harm to the people of the south. Due to civil war, certain peoples face nihilation because of the forced deportation of refugees settled in certain areas, religious and ethnic cleansing, and famine of populations pinned in by warring factions.”

Quotations:
“Food aid sent over by Western of Christian humanitarian organizations is monopolized by the “Dawa Islamiyya,” a sort of Islamic Propaganda Fide.” (Boulad, 21)

“The Islamic agency made the most of this opportunity to spread Islam and to eliminate Christians. Aid is given only to those who accept the imposed condition of embracing Islam and submitting themselves to the teachings and customs of the Koran, thus granting them the right of food vouchers.” (Boulad, 22)

What I need to learn more about:
I need to learn more about the Sudan Aid.

My opinion:
This article gives a good overview of the 3 main genocides that occurred in the past but does not explains enough the current ones.

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Carnes, Tony. "Does Darfur Have a Prayer?" Christianity Today. 50.12 (2006): 50-3.

Aspect of my research:
Life conditions

Summary:
This article gives a summary of the crisis with the number of dead and displaced people. It also talks about the fact that the Islamic government still ignores demands from Darfurians to stop the violence. Then, the author talks about the international aid that is still not share fairly. He then ends up his article with a true story of a young girl living in a refugee’s camp and who does not speak since she saw all her family killed.

Quotations:
“Some 13 percent of the children are malnourished, slightly below the 15 percent that is considered the threshold for a famine emergency.” (Carnes, 50)

“The janjaweed roam up and down the region shooting, raping, and burning. Honor is gone.” (Carnes, 51)

What I need to learn more about:
I need to learn more about children living in Refugee’s camps.

My opinion:
It is a good article. It gives a great overview and the most important aspects are discussed.

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Grose, Thomas K. “Do Something About Darfur.” U.S. News & World Report 141 (2006): 83.

Aspect of my research:
Measures that can be taken

Summary:
“The article discusses the personal benefits of helping to end the conflict and genocide that is happening in Darfur, Sudan. Darfur activist groups suggest starting letter or E-mail campaigns that demand a halt to the violence. The campaigns should be directed not only to United States politicians, but to United Nations officials and the Sudanese government. One can also donate money to groups such as; SaveDarfur, CARE, UNESCO, and Doctors Without Borders.”

Quotation:
“Genocide is such a huge concept that it’s hard for people to get their arms around it. There’s a feeling of, “What can I do?”” (Grose, 83)

What I need to learn more about:
I need to learn more about what other NGOs are doing in order to help the Darfurians.

My opinion:
It is a really short article but it says exactly what it wants to say. Very clear.

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Brivati, Brian. "Africa's Inferno. (Cover story)." New Statesman. 136.4825 (2007): 30-2.

Aspect of my research:
History and life conditions + genocide debate

Summary:
Brief summary of the situation (number of death and deported people.) The article also talks about the rebels attacking camps, killing civilians and raping them too. Moreover, the author discusses about the debate of the “g-word”.

Quotations:
“NGOs that hope to give limited help are themselves subject to intimidation.” (Brivati, 30)

“Amnesty International reported on a “dramatic increase in the numbers of rapes” in Darfur. Amnesty, Unicef, the Aegis Trust and other groups that take a range of views on the conflict all agree that sexual violence is central and systemic to this conflict.” (Brivati, 31)

“President Omar el-Bashir’s government has taken a series of gambles on the indifference of the world to the fate of Darfur’s people, and he will continue to do so.” (Brivati, 32)

What I need to learn more about:
I need to learn more about the UN position.

My opinion:
It is a good and interesting article because it has aspects that were not seen yet in other articles.

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Human Rights Watch. “Chad/Sudan: End Government Support to Militias”. Human Rights Watch. New York. 2007. 4 Feb. 2007.

Aspect of my research:
Life conditions

Summary:
There are attacks in Chad, near the Sudan border but the problem is that Chad rebels, as Sudanese rebels, are “protected” by the government so the population are asking for help from the international community.

Quotation:
“Chad and Sudan are supporting rebel insurgencies on both sides of their border while militias rampage through eastern Chad and civilians are left to fend for themselves. Chad is too busy fighting rebels to protect its own citizens, and may be making matters worse by supporting select militias.” (Human Rights Watch, 1)

What I need to learn more about:
I need to learn more about the situation in Chad and if it is really because of the crisis in Darfur that Chad is starting to have violence.

My opinion:
The article is good because it gives another point of view.

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Luban, David. "Calling Genocide by Its Rightful Name: Lemkin's Word, Darfur, and the UN Report." Chicago Journal of International Law. 7.1 (2006): 303-320.

Aspect of my research:
Theories of a genocide + the genocide question

Summary:
The article talks about headlines from different newspaper saying that the crisis in Darfur is not a genocide. Then the author says that the word “genocide” can be a false friend because it must be analyse under different points of view: in legal, political and journalistic terms.

Quotations:
“With headlines such as Murder-But No Genocide, the motivation to intervene was gone. […] Genocide sounds like it might be our business, but “mere” murder is theirs.” (Luban, 303)

“From a practical point of view, genocide is a harder crime to prove than crimes against humanity, because of the difficulty of proving specific intent.” (Luban, 307)

What I need to learn more about:
I need to learn more about the Genocide Convention, the Nuremberg Charter, the Criminal Tribunal, the UN Commission and the UN Darfur Report.

My opinion:
It is a really interesting text because it has full of relevant information. Moreover, in the conclusion, the author gives a definition of genocide from the Genocide Convention, and a definition of crime against humanity of extermination.

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International Committee of the Red Cross. “What is International Humanitarian Law?” Advisory Service on International Humanitarian Law. International Committee of the Red Cross. Feb. 2007. ICRC. 14 Feb. .

Aspect of my research:
Theories of International Humanitarian Law

Summary:
Description of humanitarian laws, as regard to human rights laws, and the way to used them, when they can be applied and what they cover. It also talks about what should be done to implement the law.

Quotation:
“Non-international armed conflicts are those restricted to the territory of a single State, involving either regular armed forces fighting groups of armed dissidents, or armed groups fighting each other.” (ICRC, 1)

What I need to learn more about:
I need to learn more about the Geneva Convention of 1949.

My opinion:
Excellent article. It explains well the law.

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United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Darfur.” Sudan Humanitarian Overview. UN OCHA. May 2006. UN. 4 Feb. 2007. <http://www.unsudanig.org/docs/Sudan%20Humanitarian%20Overview%20Vol2%20Iss4%20Apr06.pdf>.

Aspect of my research:
Life conditions + humanitarian organizations

Summary:
In many Darfur’s refugee’s camps, the access is denied to NGOs and even to the UN Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator. Indeed, some of them were forced to suspend their operations, their food and water distributions and their sanitarians activities because of the SLA fighting. There are an increase number of attacks against humanitarian organizations.

Quotations:
“In his monthly report on Darfur to the Security Council, Secretary-General Kofi Annan called both SLA and GOS practices “a clear violation of the neutral status of the humanitarian operation” which puts humanitarian organizations in “great danger”.” (UN OCHA, 2)

“Mr. Egeland was informed that he was “not welcome” in Darfur or Khartoum. This is just one example of the “administrative harassment” that the 14000 aid workers in Darfur face every day.” (UN OCHA, 6)

What I need to learn more about:
I need to learn more about all the organizations (NGOs and GOs): their position and how they help the Darfurians.

My opinion:
A lot of acronyms were not explained in the text thus it is difficult to understand what are all the organizations about. However, this article is really good and well explains.

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Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. “Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict.” UNHCHR. United Nations. Feb. 2007. UN. 14 Feb. 2007. <http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu2/6/protocolchild.htm.>

Aspect of my research:
Public International Law

Summary:
The laws concerning the children, according to the Convention on the Rights of the Child in the involvement of children in armed conflicts, are saying that “the rights of children require special protection” and that the situation of children should continue being improved. The laws also condemned “the targeting of children in situations of armed conflict and direct attacks on objects protected under international law, including places that generally have a significant presence of children, such as schools and hospitals.”

According to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, there should not be children under the age of 15 years enlisted or conscripted and participating in international and non-international armed conflicts.

According to the twenty-sixth International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, children under the age of 18 years should not take part in fighting.

What I need to learn more about:
I need to learn more about how to apply the law.

My opinion:
This article contains well-explained articles and even if article 8 seems realistic and easily achievable, there are not enough examples on how to apply the law.

Organizing a research proposal (preliminary draft)

1) SUBJECT
I hope my research will sensitize people by showing them how bad is the situation in Darfur because people need to know what is going on there. I would like to write about the life conditions in Darfur, the movement of population and the actions of different organizations because I think those elements are the best to explain the situation. My paper’s title will probably simply be: “The Darfur Crisis”. Finally, as my approach, I will probably choose “examine and analyse”.

2) AUDIENCE
My audience will be university students and Quebec population interested in politics, human catastrophes and genocides.

3) DEFENCE
I think my subject is interesting because it is a current event and not everybody knows what is going on in Darfur and I think it is important to know why people are killing others. Because I already worked on the Rwanda Conflict and because I am really interested in international conflicts, I think it is quite legitimate that I want to work on the Darfur Conflict. I think my subject is worth considering according to the fact that after the Rwanda Conflict, international organizations said that they will never let this kind of war happen again. With my research, I want to see what are the actions of different organizations in order to help the population in Darfur. Even if I already worked on a conflict, I think it is more exciting for me to do my paper on another one because it will expand my knowledge on the subject and I will be able to do a comparison between the two.

4) METHODOLOGY
The first step to follow is to go to the school library because over there I can find various sources such as books, periodicals, electronic resources and videos. Then, I can search on Internet and find a lot of reliable sites. Once I have all my sources, I have to read them and note all useful information I can find on index cards or with my computer. With the summaries on my index cards, I can write my first draft.

General outline:
Topic : The Darfur crisis and the support brought to the population.

Introduction
Where is Darfur
History of the crisis
Set up the problem

The life conditions in Darfur
Murders, violence and raping
Lack of food and potable water
Health problems

The movement of population
Refugee camps in Sudan and Chad
Life conditions in refugee camps

The actions of different organizations
What they have done
What are the barriers

Conclusion
What are the recent developments in the region
What are the possible solutions

Answers based on last week readings

A)What are the most important differences between British English and American English? (Provide a few examples)

The most important differences between British English and American English are differences of grammar, vocabulary, spelling and pronunciation. Indeed, in grammar, two forms are possible in a certain English while only one is possible in another English.
E.g.:
American English: He just went home. OR He’s just gone home.
British English: He’s just gone home.
American English: He probably has arrived. OR He has probably arrived.
British English: He has probably arrived.

In vocabulary, sometimes many words can be used for the same meaning or the same word has different meanings depending if it is in American English or British English.
E.g.:
Same meaning
“Resumé” in AmE = “CV” in BrE
“Elevator” in AmE = “Lift” in BrE
Different meanings
“Mad” in AmE = “Angry” in BrE BUT “Mad” in BrE = “Crazy” in AmE


In spelling, words in AmE end in –or as in BrE the same words end in –our (e.g.: odor-odour, color-colour, honor-honour). Moreover, some words end in –er in AmE and in –re in BrE (e.g.: center-centre, meter-metre, liter-litre).
Many verbs ending in –ize in AmE are ending in –ize or –ise in BrE (e.g.: analyze-analyse, organize-organise/organize, realize-realise/realize).
Also, some words ending with two “l” in AmE are ending with only one “l” in BrE (e.g.: enroll-enrol, fulfill-fulfil).

There are a lot of differences between AmE and BrE in pronunciation. The most important ones are:
-In AmE some vowels are “nasal”, but not in most British accents.
-There is one more vowel in BrE. It is called the “rounded short o” and it is used in words like “dog”, “gone”, “stop” and “lost”.
-There is a difference in the pronunciation of words written with a + consonant.
-In BrE, the vowel in words like “home”, “go” and “open” is pronounced more “open” than in AmE.
-In BrE, “r” is only pronounced before a vowel sound but in AmE “r” is pronounced at all time.
-In BrE, “t” and “d” are very different but in AmE their pronunciation is quite alike.
-Words with “th”, “d”, “t” or “n” followed by “u” or “ew” are pronounced differently in BrE and AmE, as the words ending in unstressed –ile
-In AmE, long words ending in –ary, -ery or –ory are pronounced with one more syllable.
-Words borrowed from French and ending with a vowel sound are usually stressed in AmE but not in BrE.


B)What is standard English?
Standard English is the language accepted for official purpose such as government, law, business, education, media, literature and the armed forces. Standard English is the result of “accidents” in history.


C)What is a dialect?
A dialect is part of a language and it differs from regions to regions. There are differences between dialects and standard English but that does not mean that dialects are poor languages, they just cannot be used for official purposes.


D)What are the characteristics of formal English as oppose to informal or spoken English?
Formal English is used when people are careful about how they express themselves. It is also mostly used in writing. Depending on the situation, some words and expressions are informal or formal. As an example, we use formal English for conferences, meetings and business, but we use informal English to talk with friends and family.

Another difference concerns the grammatical structures. Indeed, they are not the same in formal and informal English. In fact, contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives are only used in informal speech and writing.
Formal: It has gone.
Informal: It’s gone.

Also, in informal language, prepositions come at the end of certain structures.
Formal: In which century did he live?
Informal: Which century did he live in?

Some relative structures are different.
Formal: The man whom she married.
Informal: The man she married.

Some determiners are followed more often by singular verb forms in formal language.
Formal: Neither of us likes him.
Informal: Neither of us like him.

Subject and object forms of pronouns are used differently.
Formal: It was she who first saw what to do.
Informal: It was her that first saw what to do.

Ellipsis is more common in informal language.
Formal: Have you seen Mr Andrews?
Informal: Seen John?


Another difference concerns vocabulary. There are some words used mostly in formal situations, others mostly in neutral or informal situations or only in informal situations.
Formal: I beg your pardon?
Neutral/Informal: Pardon? Sorry? Excuse me? Pardon me?
Informal: What?


E)Do languages change over time? (Explain how and why).
Languages change over time and there are several reasons for that:

1-Communicative need
A long time ago there were two second-person pronouns: thou and ye. However, modern English uses only you, but some people need to differentiate the two you with expressions such as “you guys” and these expressions are beginning to function as second person plural pronouns.

2-Influence from other dialects
British English and American English are starting to mix their structures up together.E.g.: I feel like I’m getting a cold. (Older British form: I feel as if I’m getting a cold.)

3-Languages simplify themselves
With times, complicated structures become simpler and are used more often. As an example, the English conditional sentences: If you’d have asked I’d have told you.

4-Small, less important distinctions are confused or disappear
Some irregular verb forms are often confused in speech. Because of that, it can lead to a change in the language.

5-New forms and uses spread through the language
Progressive verb forms gradually became used more and more widely. E.g.: I’m understanding French a lot better now.

6-“Underground” forms become respectable
Some forms were not used so often by careful speakers but now people are more tolerant so they are becoming common.
E.g.: Here’s your papers (instead of Here are your papers.)

7-Mistakes become part of the language
When many people make a mistake, it can sometimes become part of the normal form. E.g.: data and between…to.

8-Phonetically weak forms disappear
A weak form of have is mostly not heard and people are beginning to “forget” them while talking. Thus, instead of hearing “I’ve got”, we heard “I got”.

9-Some more examples of changes in modern English
-Who is replacing whom.
-Will and would are replacing shall and should.
-Were is becoming less common.
-Adverbs without –ly are becoming more common.
-Plural noun modifiers are becoming more common.
-Less with plurals is becoming more respectable.
-Some American English prepositional uses and phrasal verb forms are moving into British English ones.
-The American English use of past tense with just and already is becoming common in British English.