Answers based on last week readings

A)What are the most important differences between British English and American English? (Provide a few examples)

The most important differences between British English and American English are differences of grammar, vocabulary, spelling and pronunciation. Indeed, in grammar, two forms are possible in a certain English while only one is possible in another English.
E.g.:
American English: He just went home. OR He’s just gone home.
British English: He’s just gone home.
American English: He probably has arrived. OR He has probably arrived.
British English: He has probably arrived.

In vocabulary, sometimes many words can be used for the same meaning or the same word has different meanings depending if it is in American English or British English.
E.g.:
Same meaning
“Resumé” in AmE = “CV” in BrE
“Elevator” in AmE = “Lift” in BrE
Different meanings
“Mad” in AmE = “Angry” in BrE BUT “Mad” in BrE = “Crazy” in AmE


In spelling, words in AmE end in –or as in BrE the same words end in –our (e.g.: odor-odour, color-colour, honor-honour). Moreover, some words end in –er in AmE and in –re in BrE (e.g.: center-centre, meter-metre, liter-litre).
Many verbs ending in –ize in AmE are ending in –ize or –ise in BrE (e.g.: analyze-analyse, organize-organise/organize, realize-realise/realize).
Also, some words ending with two “l” in AmE are ending with only one “l” in BrE (e.g.: enroll-enrol, fulfill-fulfil).

There are a lot of differences between AmE and BrE in pronunciation. The most important ones are:
-In AmE some vowels are “nasal”, but not in most British accents.
-There is one more vowel in BrE. It is called the “rounded short o” and it is used in words like “dog”, “gone”, “stop” and “lost”.
-There is a difference in the pronunciation of words written with a + consonant.
-In BrE, the vowel in words like “home”, “go” and “open” is pronounced more “open” than in AmE.
-In BrE, “r” is only pronounced before a vowel sound but in AmE “r” is pronounced at all time.
-In BrE, “t” and “d” are very different but in AmE their pronunciation is quite alike.
-Words with “th”, “d”, “t” or “n” followed by “u” or “ew” are pronounced differently in BrE and AmE, as the words ending in unstressed –ile
-In AmE, long words ending in –ary, -ery or –ory are pronounced with one more syllable.
-Words borrowed from French and ending with a vowel sound are usually stressed in AmE but not in BrE.


B)What is standard English?
Standard English is the language accepted for official purpose such as government, law, business, education, media, literature and the armed forces. Standard English is the result of “accidents” in history.


C)What is a dialect?
A dialect is part of a language and it differs from regions to regions. There are differences between dialects and standard English but that does not mean that dialects are poor languages, they just cannot be used for official purposes.


D)What are the characteristics of formal English as oppose to informal or spoken English?
Formal English is used when people are careful about how they express themselves. It is also mostly used in writing. Depending on the situation, some words and expressions are informal or formal. As an example, we use formal English for conferences, meetings and business, but we use informal English to talk with friends and family.

Another difference concerns the grammatical structures. Indeed, they are not the same in formal and informal English. In fact, contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives are only used in informal speech and writing.
Formal: It has gone.
Informal: It’s gone.

Also, in informal language, prepositions come at the end of certain structures.
Formal: In which century did he live?
Informal: Which century did he live in?

Some relative structures are different.
Formal: The man whom she married.
Informal: The man she married.

Some determiners are followed more often by singular verb forms in formal language.
Formal: Neither of us likes him.
Informal: Neither of us like him.

Subject and object forms of pronouns are used differently.
Formal: It was she who first saw what to do.
Informal: It was her that first saw what to do.

Ellipsis is more common in informal language.
Formal: Have you seen Mr Andrews?
Informal: Seen John?


Another difference concerns vocabulary. There are some words used mostly in formal situations, others mostly in neutral or informal situations or only in informal situations.
Formal: I beg your pardon?
Neutral/Informal: Pardon? Sorry? Excuse me? Pardon me?
Informal: What?


E)Do languages change over time? (Explain how and why).
Languages change over time and there are several reasons for that:

1-Communicative need
A long time ago there were two second-person pronouns: thou and ye. However, modern English uses only you, but some people need to differentiate the two you with expressions such as “you guys” and these expressions are beginning to function as second person plural pronouns.

2-Influence from other dialects
British English and American English are starting to mix their structures up together.E.g.: I feel like I’m getting a cold. (Older British form: I feel as if I’m getting a cold.)

3-Languages simplify themselves
With times, complicated structures become simpler and are used more often. As an example, the English conditional sentences: If you’d have asked I’d have told you.

4-Small, less important distinctions are confused or disappear
Some irregular verb forms are often confused in speech. Because of that, it can lead to a change in the language.

5-New forms and uses spread through the language
Progressive verb forms gradually became used more and more widely. E.g.: I’m understanding French a lot better now.

6-“Underground” forms become respectable
Some forms were not used so often by careful speakers but now people are more tolerant so they are becoming common.
E.g.: Here’s your papers (instead of Here are your papers.)

7-Mistakes become part of the language
When many people make a mistake, it can sometimes become part of the normal form. E.g.: data and between…to.

8-Phonetically weak forms disappear
A weak form of have is mostly not heard and people are beginning to “forget” them while talking. Thus, instead of hearing “I’ve got”, we heard “I got”.

9-Some more examples of changes in modern English
-Who is replacing whom.
-Will and would are replacing shall and should.
-Were is becoming less common.
-Adverbs without –ly are becoming more common.
-Plural noun modifiers are becoming more common.
-Less with plurals is becoming more respectable.
-Some American English prepositional uses and phrasal verb forms are moving into British English ones.
-The American English use of past tense with just and already is becoming common in British English.